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Experiment 1: Resistors

Getting to know the following components

  • Digital multimeter
  • Function generator
  • Breadboard

Applying

  • direct/indirect resistance measurement
  • resistor standard series
  • mesh/node equations
  • differential resistance of an incandescent lamp

Resistance measurement

Procedure for resistance measurement:

  1. Set the measuring device to resistance measurement
  2. Connect the resistance to be measured to the corresponding sockets on the measuring device (the measuring device sockets labeled COM and $\Omega$
  3. Read the measured value

There are different types of resistance measurement:

  • direct resistance measurement
  • indirect resistance measurement



Determine the nominal and measured values of the resistance for $R_{\rm 1}$ (brown, green, orange), $R_{\rm 2}$ (yellow, violet, red), $R_{\rm 3}$ (red, violet, red) and the incandescent lamp $R_{\rm L}$. Also measure the approximate resistance $R_{\rm K}$ of your body from your right to your left hand.

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:table-1_v2.svg

Tab. 1: Direct resistance measurement


How do you explain the deviation between $R_{\rm L,nominal}$ and $R_{\rm L,meas}$?






What consequences can $R_{\rm K}$ have?






Now determine the series and parallel connections of resistors $R_{\rm 1}$, $R_{\rm 2}$ and $R_{\rm 3}$.
Specify the formulas used:

$R_{\rm serial}$ =



$R_{\rm parallel}$ (= $R_{\rm a}$ || $R_{\rm b}$) =


lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:table-2_v1-serial_parallel.svg

Tab. 2: Series and parallel connections




The resistances can also be determined by measuring the current/voltage.

Ohm's law: In an electrical circuit, the current increases with increasing voltage and decreases with increasing resistance.
$$ I=\frac{U}{R} $$

Build the measuring circuit shown in figure 1 for each of the three resistors and set the voltage on the power supply to $~{\rm 12} ~{ V}$.

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:fig-1_v1-indirect-measurement.svg Fig. 1: Indirect resistance measurement

Measure $U_{\rm n}$ [V] and $I_{\rm n}$ [mA]. Calculate $R_{\rm n}$ [k$\Omega$] from these values.

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:table-3_v1-indirect-measurement.svg

Tab. 3: Indirect resistance measurement

Mesh set


In every closed circuit and every mesh of the network, the sum of all voltages is zero!
Set the voltage on the power supply to $12~\rm V$ and measure this voltage precisely using a multimeter. Set up the measuring circuit shown in figure 2.

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:fig-1_mesh-set_v1.svg
Fig. 2: Mesh-set

Add the voltage arrows and measure $U$, $U_{\rm 1}$ und $U_{\rm 2}$:

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:table-1_mesh-set_v1.svg

Tab. 4: Mesh set voltage mesurement

What is the mesh set here?



Check the formula with the measured values:



The resistors $R_{\rm 1}$ and $R_{\rm 2}$ connected in series form a voltage divider. What is the ratio between the voltages $U_{\rm 1}$ and $R_{\rm 2}$?

$$ \frac{U_1}{U_2} = $$

Set of nodes


At each junction point, the sum of all incoming and outgoing currents is equal to zero!
Set the voltage on the power supply to $12~\rm V$ and measure the voltage accurately with a multimeter. In the first step, set up the measuring circuit shown in figure 3:

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:fig-3_v1-node-set-1.svg Fig. 3: Node-set circuit 1

Draw the arrows for the directions of currents $I_{\rm 1}$ and $I_{\rm 2}$ in figure 4. The DC current measurement range must be set on both multimeter using the rotary switch. Then measure currents $I_{\rm 1}$ and $I_{\rm 2}$ and enter the measured values in table 5.

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:fig-4_v1-node-set-2.svg Fig. 4: Node-set circuit 2

What is the relationship between currents $I_{\rm 1}$ and $I_{\rm 2}$?

$$ \frac{I_1}{I_2} = $$

Switch the power supply back on and measure the current $I$. Enter its value in table 5.

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:table-5_node-set_v1.svg

Tab. 5: Node set current mesurement

Determine the node set for node K and check its validity.

Using the measured values for resistors $R_{\rm 1}$, $R_{\rm 2}$, and $R_{\rm 3}$, calculate the total resistance $R_{\rm KP}$:

Using the calculated value $R_{\rm KP}$, check the measured value of the total current:
$$ I=\frac{U}{R_{KP}} = $$

Voltage divider as voltage source

The voltage divider shown in figure 5 is in an unloaded state, as the entire current supplied by the power supply flows through the resistors $R_{\rm 1}$ and $R_{\rm 2}$ connected in series. A resistor parallel to $R_{\rm 2}$ loads the voltage divider. Set the voltage on the power supply to $12 ~\rm V$ and measure the exact voltage with a multimeter. Set up the measuring circuit shown in figure 5. For the connected load $R_{\rm L}$ = ${\rm 10} ~{\rm k\Omega}$, the voltage divider represents a voltage source. Like any voltage source, it has a source voltage (also called the original voltage) $U_{\rm 0}$ and an internal resistance $R_{\rm i}$. The internal resistance of a voltage divider considered as a voltage source results from the parallel connection of the divider resistors $R_{\rm 1}$ and $R_{\rm 2}$:
$$ R_i = R_1 || R_2 = \frac{R_1\cdot R_2}{R_1+R_2} $$
Use the measured values of resistors $R_{\rm 1}$ and $R_{\rm 2}$ to calculate the internal resistance $R_{\rm i}$ of the voltage source:

$$ R_i = $$ $$ U_0 = $$


The power $P_{\rm 0}$ supplied by the power supply can be calculated using the following equation: $$ P_0 = U\cdot I_1$$
The power consumed by the load resistance can be determined using the following formula: $$ P_L = R_L\cdot {I_2}^2$$

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:fig-5-voltage-divider_v1.svg Fig. 5: Voltage divider

Draw the equivalent voltage source of the voltage divider:






What would be the value of $U_{\rm 2}$ without $R_{\rm L}$?
$$ U_{2, zero} = $$

Calculate $U_{\rm 2,L}$ and $I_{\rm 2}$ for $R_{\rm L}$ = ${\rm 10} ~{\rm k\Omega}$ using the values of the equivalent voltage source: (Provide formulas!)

$$ U_{2L} : $$

$$ I_2 : $$
Check the values by measuring:
$$ U_{2L, Meas} : $$
$$ I_{2, Meas} : $$

Check the values using Kirchhoff's rules: (Provide formulas!)
$$ U_{2L} : $$

$$ I_2 : $$

Nonlinear resistors


All resistors examined so far are linear resistors, for which the characteristic curve $I=f(U)$ is a straight line, s. figure 6. The resistance value of a linear resistor is independent of the current $I$ flowing through it or the applied voltage $U$.

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:fig-6_linear-resistors_v1.svg
Fig. 6: Characteristic curve of a linear resistor

With nonlinear resistors, there is no proportionality between current and voltage. The characteristic curve of such a resistor is shown in figure 7. With these resistors, we talk about static resistance ($R$) and dynamic (or differential) resistance ($r$). The static resistance is determined for a specific operating point: at a specific voltage, the current is read from the resistance characteristic curve.
The calculation is performed according to Ohm's law:

$$ R = \frac{U}{I} $$

The differential resistance around the operating point is calculated from the current difference caused by a change in the applied voltage:

$$ r = \frac{\Delta U}{\Delta I} $$

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:fig-7_nonlinear-resistors_v1.svg
Fig. 7: Characteristic curve of a nonlinear resistor

A light bulb is examined as an example of a nonlinear resistor. Set up the measuring circuit shown in figure 8.

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:fig-8_light-bulb_v1.svg
Fig. 8: Measuring circuit light bulb
Set the voltage on the power supply to the voltage values from table 6. Measure the corresponding current values and enter them in table 6.

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:table-6_light-bulb_v1.svg

Tab. 6: Values characteristic curve light bulb


Create the characteristic curve $I = f(U)$, s. figure 9

lab_electrical_engineering:1_resistors:fig-9_light-bulb-curve_v1.svg
Fig. 9: Characteristic curve light bulb

Calculate the static resistance $R$ at the operating point $U = \rm 7.0 ~V$:



Calculate the dynamic resistance $r$ at the operating point $U = \rm 7.0 ~V$:



Compare the values with the values from table 1 (direct resistance measurement)

For this experiment you should

  1. be able to apply and explain the following concepts:
    1. current- and voltage-correct measurement
    2. series and parallel connection of resistors
    3. mesh and node equations (Kirchhoff's laws)
    4. passive sign convention and active sign convention
    5. ideal and real sources

You should be able to answer the following questions:

  1. Which operating mode does the source use? Which quantity is kept constant by the source?
  2. Power supplies operate in quadrants. In which quadrant is the power supply operated? What can the source then correspondingly not do?
  3. What must be considered for the (loaded and unloaded) voltage divider?
  4. How do you measure a voltage with a current meter? How a current with a voltage meter?
  5. How does an ohmmeter measure resistance?
  6. Where are the limits of linearity in real resistors?
  7. What examples are there of linear and non-linear resistors?
  8. What else can the resistance depend on?